That might be efflorescence (calcium hydroxide) drawn to the surface by a condensation event. Your concrete mix is supposed to have a pozzolan (fly ash or slag) in it that reacts with the calcium hydroxide (free lime from the cement reaction). Using a pozzolan and moderate water/cement ratio produces a low permeability concrete slab, and stronger too. A silicate densifier will react with the calcium hydroxide near the concrete surface and is your best bet at this point for a partial fix if the white dust is indeed efflorescence.